African Animal Trypanosomosis: Insight into Host-Parasite Interactions and Management Strategies

ABSTRACT

African Animal Trypanosomosis (AAT) is a parasitic disease caused by Trypanosoma species. It poses a significant threat to livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa and other endemic regions. Transmitted primarily by tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) and mechanical vectors, AAT affects a wide range of domestic animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. It leads to anemia, immunosuppression, reduced fertility, and high mortality. The interplay between parasite immune evasion, host susceptibility, and environmental factors further complicates the disease. This review explores AAT’s etiology, geographic distribution, and disease mechanisms, highlighting how host susceptibility and trypanotolerance influence disease outcomes. While certain breeds, such as N’Dama cattle and Djallonke sheep, exhibit remarkable resilience, susceptible breeds remain heavily impacted. Current disease management strategies face numerous challenges, including limited diagnostic capacity, the emergence of drug-resistant trypanosomes, and the logistical and ecological complexities of vector control. Furthermore, the socioeconomic and environmental barriers in endemic regions impede the effective implementation of interventions. Despite these challenges, advancements in molecular diagnostics, selective breeding, integrated vector control, and novel therapeutic strategies present significant opportunities for controlling AAT. Emerging technologies, such as geospatial analysis and predictive climate modeling, offer additional tools for targeting high-risk areas. Sustained investment in research, policy development, and community engagement is essential to mitigate the burden of AAT and promote livestock productivity in affected regions. This review also emphasizes the need for a multidisciplinary approach to address the challenges and opportunities associated with AAT, aiming to safeguard livelihoods and ensure sustainable livestock management.

References

• Acha, P. N., Szyfres, B. (2003). Zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), 3: 3–10.
• Abebe, R., Wolde, A., (2010). A cross-sectional study of trypanosomosis and its vectors in donkeys and mules in Northwest Ethiopia. Parasitology Research, 106(4): 911–916. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-010-1753-8
• Batista, J.S., Oliveira, A.F., Rodrigues, C.M., et al. (2009). Infection by Trypanosoma vivax in goats and sheep in the Brazilian semiarid region: From acute disease outbreak to chronic cryptic infection. Veterinary Parasitology, 165(1–2): 131–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.06.036
• Auty, H., Torr, S.J., Michoel, T., Jayaraman, S., Morrison, L.J., (2015). Cattle trypanosomosis: The diversity of trypanosomes and implications for disease epidemiology and control. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics), 34:587–598.
• Muhanguzi, D., Mugenyi, A., Bigirwa, G., Kamusiime, M., Kitibwa, A., et al. (2017). African animal trypanosomiasis as a constraint to livestock health and production in Karamoja region: A detailed qualitative and quantitative assessment. BMC Veterinary Research, 13: 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-1198-4
• Adams, E.R., Hamilton, P.B., Gibson, W.C. (2010). African trypanosomes: Celebrating diversity. Trends in Parasitology, 26(7): 324–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2010.03.003
• Batista, J.S., Rodrigues, C.M., García, H.A., Bezerra, F.S., Olinda, R.G., Teixeira, M.M., Soto-Blanco, B. (2011). Association of Trypanosoma vivax in extracellular sites with central nervous system lesions and changes in cerebrospinal fluid in experimentally infected goats. Veterinary Research, 42: 63. https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-42-63
• Berthier, D., Brenière, S. F., Bras-Gonçalves, R., Lemesre, J. L., Jamonneau, V., Solano, P., Lejon, V., Thévenon, S., Bucheton, B., (2016). Tolerance to trypanosomatids: A threat or a key for disease elimination? Trends in Parasitology, 32(2): 157–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2015.10.008
• Bouyer, J., Bouyer, F., Donadeu, M., Rowan, T., Napier, G., (2013). Community- and farmer-based management of animal African trypanosomosis in cattle, Trends in Parasitology 29(11): 519-522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2013.08.003
• Isaac, C., Ohiolei, J.A., Ebhodaghe, F., Igbinosa, I.B., Eze, A.A., (2017). Animal African Trypanosomiasis in Nigeria: A long way from elimination/ eradication. Acta Tropica 176: 323-331 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.08.032
• Betancur Hurtado, O. J., Jimenez Castro, P. D., Giraldo-Ríos, C. (2016). Reproductive failures associated with Trypanosoma (Duttonella) vivax. Veterinary Parasitology, 229, 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.10.005
• Desquesnes, M., Gonzatti, M., Sazmand, A., Thévenon, S., Bossard, Boulangé, A., Gimonneau, G., et al. (2022). A review on the diagnosis of animal trypanosomoses. Parasites & Vectors, 15: 64. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-022-05190-1
• Venturelli, A., Tagliazucchi, L., Lima, C., Venuti, F., Malpezzi, G., Magoulas, G.E., Santarem, N., Calogeropoulou, T., Cordeiro-da-Silva, A., Costi, M.P., (2022). Current Treatments to Control African Trypanosomiasis and One Health Perspective. Microorganisms 10: 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10071298
• Chitanga, S., Marcotty, T., Namangala, B., Van Den Bossche, P., Van Den Abbeele, J., Delespaux, V., (2011). High Prevalence of Drug Resistance in Animal Trypanosomes without a History of Drug Exposure. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 5: E1454.
• (2019). Compendium of Standard Diagnostic Protocols for Animal Trypanosomoses of African Origin. In: OIE Reference Laboratory for Animal Trypanosomoses of African origin Retrieved on December 17, 2024, from https://www.woah.org/nttat/Attached%20files/A16-REC-COMPENDIUM_PROTOCOLES_TRYPANO-En.pdf
• Jordon, A. (1996). Trypanosomosis control and tsetse research laboratory, Bristol, pp. 13–19. Acta Tropica, 99(2–3), 184–199.
• Batista, J. S., Rodrigues, C. M., Olinda, R. G., Silva, T. M., Vale, R. G., Câmara, A. C., Rebouças, R. E., Bezerra, F. S., García, H. A., Teixeira, M. M. (2012). Highly debilitating natural Trypanosoma vivax infections in Brazilian calves: Epidemiology, pathology, and probable transplacental transmission. Parasitology Research, 110(1): 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-011-2460-7
• Carnes, J., Anupama, A., Balmer, O., Jackson, A., Lewis, M., Brown, R., et al. (2015). Genome and phylogenetic analyses of Trypanosoma evansi reveal extensive similarity to T. brucei and multiple independent origins for dyskinetoplasty. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 9: e3404. https://doi.org/10. 1371/journal.pntd.0003404
• Mulat, G., Maru, M., Tarekegn, Z. S., Dejene, H. (2024). A systematic review and meta-analysis on prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in East Africa. Parasite Epidemiology and Control, 26, e00371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parepi.2023.e00371
• Morrison, L. J., Vezza, L., Rowan, T., Hope, J. C. (2016). Animal African trypanosomiasis: Time to increase focus on clinically relevant parasite and host species. Trends in Parasitology, 32(8), 599-607.
• Holmes, P. H. (2013). Tsetse-transmitted trypanosomes: Their biology, disease impact, and control. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 112: S11–S23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2012.07.011
• Meyer, A., Holt, H.R., Selby, R., Guitian, J., (2016). Past and ongoing tsetse and animal trypanosomiasis control operations in five African countries: A systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 10: e0005247.
• Van den Bossche, P., Delespaux, V., (2011). Options for the control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis. International Journal for Parasitology, 41(5), 557-564.
• Gutierrez, C., Corbera, J. A., Juste, M. C., Delgado, J. V., Morales, I., (2010). Camel trypanosomosis and its vectors in the Canary Islands: An epidemiological and control perspective. Veterinary Parasitology, 175(3-4), 128-136.
• Desquesnes, M., Holzmuller, P., Lai, D. H., Dargantes, A., Lun, Z. R., Jittaplapong, S. (2013). Trypanosoma evansi and surra: A review and perspectives on transmission, epidemiology, and control. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 4: 1-17.
• Karshima, N.S., Lawal, A.I., Okubanjo, O.O., (2016). Feeding patterns and xenomonitoring of Trypanosomes among tsetse flies around the Gashaka Gumti National Park, Nigeria. J. Parasitol. Res. 1591037. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/1591037
• Baral T.N., (2010). Immunobiology of African Trypanosomes: Need of Alternative Interventions. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. Article ID 389153, 24 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/389153
• Loses, G., Ikede, B. (2002). Review on pathology of diseases in domestic and laboratory animals caused by Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T.brucei, T. rhodesiense and gambiense. Vet. Path (suppl)., 9, 1-71.
• Bengaly, Z., Sidibe, I., Ganaba, R., Desquesnes, M., Boly, H., Sawadogo, L. (2002). Comparative pathogenicity of three genetically distinct types of Trypanosoma congolense in cattle: clinical observations and haematological changes. Vet Parasitol. 108:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(02)00164-4
• Mabbot, N., Sternberg, J., (1995). Bone marrow nitric oxide production and development of anemia in Trypanosoma brucei infected mice. Infection and Immunity, 63(4), 1563-1566.
• Mbaya, A. W., Kumshe, H., Okwudiri-Nwosu, C., (2012). The mechanisms of anemia in trypanosomosis: A review. Anemia, 12, 269-282.
• Anosa, V. O., & Kaneko, J. J. (1983). Pathogenesis of Trypanosoma brucei infection in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus): Hematologic, erythrocyte biochemical, and iron metabolic aspects. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 44(4), 639-644.
• Igbokwe, I. O. (1994). Mechanisms of cellular injury in African trypanosomosis. Veterinary Bulletin, 64, 611-620.
• Mbaya, A. W., Okwudiri-Nwosu, C., Ogbodo, M. (2009). Central nervous system involvement in Trypanosoma brucei Tropical Animal Health and Production, 41(3), 347-351.
• Selby, R., Bardosh, K., Picozzi, K., Waiswa, C., Welburn, S. C. Cattle movements and trypanosomes: Restocking efforts and the spread of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness in post-conflict Uganda. Vect., 6, 281 (2013).
• Kristjanson, P. M., Swallow, B. M., Rowlands, G. J., Kruska, R. L., De Leeuw, P. N. Measuring the costs of African animal trypanosomosis, the potential benefits of control, and returns to research. Syst., 59, 79–98 (1999).
• Maxamhud, S., Lindahl, J.F., Mugenyi, A., Echodu, R., Waiswa, C., Roese, K., (2022) Seasonal monitoring of Glossina species occurrence, infection rates, and Trypanosoma species infections in pigs in West Nile Region, Uganda. -Borne Zoonot. Dis., 22: 101–107
• Waiswa, C., (2005). Porcine trypanosomiasis in southeastern Uganda: Prevalence and assessment of therapeutic effectiveness. J. Vet. Med., 8: 59-68

Download all article in PDF

WSN 199 (2025) 75-89

ADVERTISEMENT